Kris Kristofferson

Lebanon is a small yet highly significant country located in the Middle East, on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. Despite its size, Lebanon has a rich history and a complex sociopolitical landscape that has been shaped by its strategic location, diverse population, and turbulent regional surroundings. This article provides an overview of Lebanon’s history, its political and religious makeup, the Lebanese Civil War, its economy, culture, and its position in the modern Middle East.

1. Historical Overview

Lebanon's history dates back thousands of years, making it one of the oldest continuously inhabited regions in the world. Its earliest known inhabitants were the Phoenicians, a seafaring people who lived along the coast and played a significant role in spreading trade and culture across the Mediterranean in ancient times. The Phoenician city-states, such as Tyre, Sidon, and Byblos, were major centers of commerce and culture, known for their innovations in shipbuilding and the spread of the alphabet.

Lebanon has been influenced by various empires and cultures throughout history, including the Egyptians, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. The region was later incorporated into the Byzantine Empire until the arrival of Arab Muslim armies in the 7th century AD, which led to the Islamization of the region. Despite this, Lebanon retained significant religious diversity, with a sizable Christian population, especially in the mountainous regions.

During the medieval period, Lebanon became a battleground during the Crusades, with various Christian kingdoms, including the Crusaders, and Islamic forces vying for control. The Mamluks and later the Ottoman Empire would rule Lebanon, though the region enjoyed semi-autonomy under local leaders, particularly the Druze and Maronite Christian communities in the mountains.

2. Colonialism and the Formation of Modern Lebanon

The modern state of Lebanon was created in the aftermath of World War I, when the Ottoman Empire collapsed, and the League of Nations placed Lebanon and Syria under French mandate. The French authorities created "Greater Lebanon" in 1920 by expanding the borders of the existing Mount Lebanon area to include the coastal cities of Beirut, Tripoli, Sidon, and Tyre, as well as the fertile Bekaa Valley. This expansion brought in a larger Muslim population, complicating Lebanon's sectarian makeup.

In 1943, Lebanon gained independence from France, with an agreement known as the National Pact, which established a power-sharing system between the country's various religious groups. The president would always be a Maronite Christian, the prime minister a Sunni Muslim, and the speaker of the parliament a Shia Muslim. This sectarian political arrangement was meant to maintain balance but also sowed the seeds for future conflict.

3. The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990)

Lebanon’s delicate sectarian balance was shattered by a combination of internal tensions and external pressures, leading to the outbreak of a brutal civil war in 1975. The war had multiple causes, including economic inequality, demographic changes, and the presence of Palestinian militants in Lebanon following their expulsion from Jordan in 1970 (Black September).

The civil war pitted a complex array of militias and political groups against each other, with the two main factions being the Lebanese Front (a coalition of mostly Christian parties) and the Lebanese National Movement (a coalition of Muslim and leftist parties allied with the Palestinian Liberation Organization, PLO). As the war progressed, various foreign powers became involved, including Syria, Israel, and Iran, further complicating the conflict. Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982, resulting in the occupation of southern Lebanon and the siege of Beirut, which eventually led to the withdrawal of the PLO from the country.

The war also saw the rise of Hezbollah, a Shia militant group backed by Iran, which formed in response to the Israeli invasion. Hezbollah would grow into a powerful political and military force in Lebanon, further deepening the country’s sectarian divisions.

The war finally ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement, which restructured Lebanon’s political system to give more representation to the Muslim population and reduced the powers of the Maronite presidency. However, the war left deep scars on Lebanese society, with an estimated 120,000 people killed and large parts of the country’s infrastructure destroyed.

4. Post-War Reconstruction and Political Instability

After the civil war, Lebanon began a slow process of rebuilding, led by Prime Minister Rafik Hariri, a billionaire businessman who initiated several large-scale reconstruction projects, particularly in Beirut. However, the country remained deeply divided along sectarian lines, and political instability continued to plague Lebanon.

In 2005, Hariri was assassinated in a massive car bombing, an event that shocked the country and led to widespread protests. Many Lebanese blamed Syria for the assassination, leading to the Cedar Revolution, a series of demonstrations that resulted in the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon after a 29-year presence.

Despite the withdrawal, Lebanon continued to be a battleground for regional powers. In 2006, Hezbollah fought a month-long war with Israel after capturing two Israeli soldiers in a cross-border raid. The war resulted in heavy casualties on both sides and widespread destruction in southern Lebanon.

5. Lebanon’s Political System and Sectarianism

Lebanon's political system is unique and deeply shaped by its sectarian makeup. The country's 18 officially recognized religious groups include Sunni and Shia Muslims, various Christian denominations (Maronites, Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox, etc.), Druze, and others. As part of the National Pact and later the Taif Agreement, political power is distributed among these groups, with parliamentary seats and key government positions allocated based on religious affiliation.

While this system was designed to prevent sectarian domination and promote inclusivity, it has also been a source of political paralysis and corruption. Political parties in Lebanon are often aligned with religious sects, and many decisions are made based on sectarian interests rather than national ones. This has made it difficult to form stable governments and implement reforms, especially in times of crisis.

6. Hezbollah’s Role in Lebanese Politics

One of the most significant players in post-civil war Lebanon is Hezbollah. Formed in the early 1980s with support from Iran’s Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, Hezbollah emerged as a resistance movement against the Israeli occupation of southern Lebanon. Over time, it has evolved into a powerful political and military force in Lebanon.

Hezbollah's military wing is stronger than the Lebanese national army, and it has been involved in various conflicts with Israel. Domestically, Hezbollah provides social services, runs schools and hospitals, and operates as a political party, with representatives in the Lebanese parliament. However, its close ties to Iran and its involvement in the Syrian Civil War on the side of the Assad regime have made Hezbollah a controversial and divisive force in Lebanon.

7. The Economy and Ongoing Crisis

Lebanon’s economy, once one of the most prosperous in the Middle East, has suffered from years of mismanagement, corruption, and conflict. The country has a relatively small industrial base, and its economy is heavily reliant on services, tourism, banking, and remittances from the Lebanese diaspora. Beirut, once known as the "Paris of the Middle East," was a major financial hub before the civil war.

In recent years, Lebanon has faced a severe economic crisis, which came to a head in 2019. The Lebanese pound, which had been pegged to the US dollar, lost much of its value, leading to hyperinflation and a banking collapse. The crisis was exacerbated by political instability, widespread corruption, and the massive explosion at the Port of Beirut in August 2020, which killed over 200 people, injured thousands, and caused billions of dollars in damage.

The economic collapse has led to widespread poverty and social unrest, with protests erupting across the country in 2019 and 2020, calling for the resignation of the government and an end to corruption. However, Lebanon’s sectarian political system has made it difficult to implement the necessary reforms.

8. Lebanese Culture and Society

Despite its political and economic challenges, Lebanon has a vibrant and diverse cultural scene. The country is known for its rich literary and artistic traditions, with Beirut serving as a hub for intellectuals and artists in the Arab world. Lebanese music, particularly the works of singers like Fairouz, has had a profound influence on Arab culture, and the country's cuisine—known for dishes like hummus, tabbouleh, and kebabs—enjoys worldwide popularity.

Lebanon is also known for its higher education institutions, particularly the American University of Beirut (AUB), which has educated generations of leaders from across the Arab world.

9. Lebanon in the Regional and Global Context

Lebanon's strategic location and its internal sectarian divisions have made it a focal point for regional and international powers. Syria, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Israel, and Western countries like the United States and France all have vested interests in Lebanon, often supporting different political factions. This foreign interference has frequently contributed to Lebanon's instability, as the country finds itself caught between competing regional agendas.

Lebanon's relationship with its southern neighbor, Israel, remains tense, with occasional flare-ups of violence, particularly involving Hezbollah. Meanwhile, the Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011, has had a profound impact on Lebanon, with over 1.5 million Syrian refugees fleeing to Lebanon, placing an enormous strain on the country’s already fragile economy and infrastructure.

Conclusion

Lebanon is a country of contrasts—small yet historically significant, diverse yet divided, and resilient yet fragile. Its unique political system, shaped by sectarianism, has allowed it to maintain a delicate balance but has also made it vulnerable to both internal and external crises. While Lebanon has endured wars, occupations, and economic collapse, it remains a nation with a rich cultural heritage and an enduring spirit of resilience. However, for Lebanon to overcome its current challenges, significant political, economic, and social reforms are necessary, requiring both the will of its leaders and the support of the international community.